Keywords
How to Cite
Abstract
Antibiotics are one of the major drugs to eradicate microbial infection. Many types of antibiotics have been used as therapeutics in several fields such as medical, agriculture, animal husbandry for human beings as well as animals. In past few years microbes have become resistant to some common antibiotics. We found that drug resistance is escalating at an alarming rate. Some of the infections like typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and gonorrhea are becoming difficult to treat while antibiotics are becoming less effective. Typhoid fever is one of the most common foodborne illnesses leading to many deaths annually worldwide. The emergence of multi-drug resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strains (S. Typhi) has resulted in several large outbreaks of enteric fever in many developing countries of the world leading to increased morbidity and mortality. Multi-drug resistance remains a major public health problem, particularly in developing countries of Asia and Africa. Some important measures like rational use of antibiotics, improvement in public sanitation facilities, availability of clean drinking water, promotion of safe food handling practices and public health education can play a crucial role in the prevention of multiple drug resistant typhoid fever.
References
Feasey NA, Dougan G, Kingsley RA, Heyderman RS, Gordon MA. Invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella disease: an emerging and neglectedtropical disease in Africa. Lancet 2012; 379: 2489-2499. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61752-2
WHO Background paper to SAGE on Typhoid Policy Recommendations 2018. http://www.who.int/immunization/ sage/meetings.
Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET. Typhoid Fever and its association with environmental factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: a spatial and time-series approach. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 2013; 7(1): 1998. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998
Raj CS. Clinical profile and antibiotic sensitivity pattern of typhoid fever in patients admitted to pediatric ward in a rural teaching hospital. International Journal of Medical Research & Health Sciences 2014; 3(2): 245-249. https://doi.org/10.5958/j.2319-5886.3.2.054
Jha R, Kumar A, Saxena A, Pandey M, Kumar R, Saxena MK. Heterogeneous expression and functional evaluation of in silico characterized recombinant OmpC of Salmonella Typhimurium as a functional poultry vaccine to eradicate zoonotic transmission. African Journal of Biotechnology 2015; 14(41): 2862-2870. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJB2015.14865
Zaki SA, Karande S. Multidrug-resistant typhoid fever: a review. J Infect Dev Ctries 2011; 5: 324-337. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.1405
Sehra D Sehra S, Ralia, P, Sehra ST. An altered drug resistance pattern in Salmonella typhi. American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology 2013; 1: 84-85. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajidm-1-5-1
Woodward TE, Smadel JE, Ley HL, Green R, Mankikar DS. Preliminary report on the beneficial effect of chloromycetin in the treatment of typhoid fever. Ann Intern Med 1948; 29: 131 -134. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-29-1-131
El Ramli AH. Chloramphenicol in typhoid fever. Lancet 1950; i: 618 -620. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(50)90509-5
Watson KC. Chloramphenicol in typhoid fever: a review of 110 cases. Trans Royal Society Trop Med Hyg 1954; 48: 526-532. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(54)90089-9
Olarte J, Galindo E.Salmonella Typhi resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin and other antimicrobial agents: strains isolated during an extensive typhoid fever epidemic in Mexico. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1973; 4: 597-601. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.4.6.597
Paniker CKJ, Vimala KN. Transferable chloramphenicol resistance in Salmonella Typhi. Nature 1972; 239(5367): 109-110. https://doi.org/10.1038/239109b0
Chun D, Seol SY, Cho DT, Tak R. Drug resistance and R plasmids in Salmonella Typhi isolated in Korea. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1977; 11: 209-213. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.11.2.209
Rowe B, Ward LR, Threlfall EJ. Multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhi: a worldwide epidemic. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: S106-S109. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinids/24.Supplement_1.S106
Butler T, LinhNN, Arnold K, Pollack M. Chloramphenicol resistant typhoid fever in Vietnam associated with R factor. Lancet 1973; 302: 983-985. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(73)91086-6
Anderson ES. The problem and implication of chloramphenicol resistance in the typhoid bacillus. J Hyg (London) 1975; 74: 289-299. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022172400024360
Rowe B, Ward LR, Threlfall EJ. Treatment of multi-resistant typhoid fever. Lancet 1991; 337: 1422. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(91)93116-Q
Mirza SH, Beeching NJ, Hart CA.Multi-drug resistant typhoid: a global problem. J Med Microbiol 1996; 44: 317-319. https://doi.org/10.1099/00222615-44-5-317
Sheorey HS, Kaundinya DV, Hulyalkar VS, Deshpande AK. Multi-drug resistant Salmonella Typhi in Bombay. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 1993; 36: 8-12.
Nguyen TA, Ha Ba K, Nguyen TD. Typhoid fever in South Vietnam, 1990-1993. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1993; 86: 476-478.
Ackers M-L, Puhr ND, Tauxe RV, Mintz ED.Laboratory-based surveillance of Salmonella serotype Typhi infections in the United States: antimicrobial resistance on the rise. JAMA 2000; 283: 2668-2673. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.283.20.2668
Mengo DM, Kariuki S, Muigai A, Revathi G. Trends in Salmonella entericaserovarTyphi in Nairobi, Kenya from 2004 to 2006. J Infect Dev Ctries 2010; 4: 393-396. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.503
Akinyemi KO, Smith SI, Oyefolu AO, Coker AO. Multidrugresistance in Salmonella entericaserovarTyphi isolated from patientswith typhoid fever complications in Lagos, Nigeria. Public Health 2005; 119: 321-327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2004.04.009
Kumar S, Rizvi M, Berry N. Rising prevalence of enteric fever due to multidrug-resistant Salmonella: an epidemiological study. J Med Microbiol 2008; 57: 1247-1250. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.2008/001719-0
Keddy KH, Smith AM, Sooka A, Ismail H, Oliver S. Fluoroquinolone-resistant typhoid, South Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2010; 16(5): 879-880. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1605.091917
Yoo S, Pai H, Byeon JH, Kang YH, Kim S, Lee BK.Epidemiology of Salmonella entericaserotype Typhi infections in Korea for recent 9 years: trends of antimicrobial resistance. J Korean Med Sci 2004; 19: 15-20. https://doi.org/10.3346/jkms.2004.19.1.15
Chitnis V, Chitnis D, Verma S, Hemvani N. Multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhi in India. Lancet 1999; 354: 514-515. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)75549-5
Murdoch DA, Banatvala NA, Bone A, Shoismatulloev BI, Ward LR, Threlfall EJ.Epidemic ciprofloxacin-resistant Salmonella Typhi in Tajaikistan. Lancet 1998; 351: 339. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)78338-0
Chau TT, Campbell JI, Galindo CM, Hoang NVM, Diep TS, Nga TTT, Chau NVV, Tuan PQ, Page AL, Ochiai RL, Schultsz C. Antimicrobial drug resistance of Salmonellaenterica serovar Typhi in Asia and molecular mechanism of reduced susceptibility to the fluoroquinolones. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 2007; 51(12): 4315-4323. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00294-07
Crump, JA, Sjollund-Karlsson, M, Gordon, MA, Parry, C.M. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, laboratory diagnosis, antimicrobial resistance, and antimicrobial management of invasive Salmonella infections. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 2015; 28(4): 901-937. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00002-15
Ahmed D, Hoque A, Mazumder R, Nahar K, Islam N, Gazi SA, Hossain MA. Salmonella entericaserovarTyphi strain producing extended-spectrum beta-lactamases in Dhaka, Bangladesh. J Med Microbiol 2012; 61: 1032-1033. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.044065-0
Al Naiemi N, Zwart B, Rijnsburger MC, Roosendaal R, Debets-Ossenkopp YJ, Mulder JA, Fijen CA, Maten W, Vandenbroucke-Grauls CM, Savelkoul PH. Extended-spectrum-beta-lactamase production in a Salmonella entericaserotype Typhi strain from the Philippines. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46(8): 2794-2795. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00676-08
Gokul BN, Menezes GA, Harish BN. ACC-1 beta-lactamase producing Salmonella entericaserovarTyphi, India. Emerg Infect Dis 16: 1170-1171. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 46: 2794-2795. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00676-08
Thanh DP, Karkey A, Dongol S, Thi NH, Thompson CN, Rabaa MA, Arjyal A, Holt KE, Wong V, Thieu NTV, Vinh PV.A novel ciprofloxacin-resistant subclade of H58 SalmonellaTyphi is associated with fluoroquinolone treatment failure. Elife 2016; 5: 14003. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.14003
Wong VK, Baker S, Pickard DJ, Parkhill J, Page AJ, Feasey, N.A, Kingsley R.A, Thomson N.R, Keane J.A, Weill FX, Edwards DJ.Phylogeographical analysis of the dominant multidrug-resistant H58 clade of SalmonellaTyphi identifies inter-and intracontinental transmission events. Nature Genetics 2015; 47(6): 632. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3281
Mulvey M.R, Boyd DA, Olson AB, Doublet B, Cloeckaert, A.The genetics of Salmonella genomic island 1. Microbes and Infection 2006; 8(7): 1915-1922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2005.12.028
WHO. Background paper to SAGE on Typhoid Policy Recommendations 2017. http://www.who.int/immunization/ sage/meetings.
Rahman BA, Wasfy MO, Maksoud MA, Hanna N, Dueger E, House, B.Multi?drug resistance and reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin among SalmonellaentericaserovarTyphi isolates from the Middle East and Central Asia. New Microbes and New Infections 2014; 2(4): 88-92. https://doi.org/10.1002/nmi2.46
Jain S and Chugh TD.Antimicrobial resistance among blood culture isolates of Salmonella entericain New Delhi. J Infect Dev Ctries 2013; 7: 788-795. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.3030
Arcangioli MA, Leroy-Setrin S, Martel JL, Chaslus-Dancla E.Evolution of chloramphenicol resistance, with emergence of cross resistance to florfenicol, in bovine Salmonella Typhimurium strains implicates definitive phage type (DT) 104. J Med Microbiol 2000; 49: 103-110. https://doi.org/10.1099/0022-1317-49-1-103
Glenn LM, Lindsey RL, Frank JF, Meinersmann RJ, Englen MD, Fedorka-Cray PJ, Frye JG. Analysis of antimicrobial resistancegenes detected in multidrug-resistant Salmonella entericaserovarTyphimuriumisolated from food animals. Microb Drug Resist 2011; 17: 407-418. https://doi.org/10.1089/mdr.2010.0189
Boyd D, Cloeckaert A, Chaslus-Dancla E, Mulvey MR.Characterization of variant Salmonella genomic island 1 multidrug resistance regions from serovarsTyphimurium DT104 and Agona. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 1714-1722. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.46.6.1714-1722.2002
Hopkins KL, Davies RH, Threlfall EJ.Mechanisms of quinolone resistance in Escherichia coli and Salmonella: recent developments. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2005; 25: 358-373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.02.006
Turner AK, Nair S, Wain J.The acquisition of full fluoroquinolone resistance in Salmonella Typhi by accumulation of point mutations in the topoisomerase targets. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 58: 733-740. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkl333
Verma JK, Pilkhwal D, Tamuly S, Kumar R, Kumar A, Saxena MK. Molecular Characterization of Ampicillin resistance poultry isolates of Salmonella Typhimurium. Journal of Cell and Tissue Research 2014; 4: 4019-4026.
Renuka K, Kapil A, Kabra SK, Wig N, Das BK, Prasad VV, Chaudhry R, Seth P. Reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and gyra genemutation in North Indian strains of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhiand serotype Paratyphi A. Microb Drug Resist 2004; 10: 146-153. https://doi.org/10.1089/1076629041310028
Strahilevitz J, Jacoby GA, Hooper DC, Robicsek A. Plasmid mediated quinolone resistance: a multifaceted threat. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009; 22: 664-689. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00016-09
Martinez-Martinez L, Pascual A, Jacoby GA.Quinolone resistance from a transferable plasmid. Lancet 1998; 351: 797-799. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)07322-4
Robicsek A, Jacoby GA, Hooper DC.The worldwide emergence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. Lancet Infect Dis 2006; 6: 629-640. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(06)70599-0
Sjollund-Karlsson M, Folster JP, Pecic G, Joyce K, Medalla F, Rickert R, Whichard JM.Emergence of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistanceamong non-TyphiSalmonella entericaisolates from humans inthe United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 2142-2144. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01288-08
Marshall WF, Blair JE. The cephalosporins. Mayo Clin Proc 1999; 74: 187-195. https://doi.org/10.4065/74.2.187
Philippon A, Arlet G, Jacoby GA. Plasmid-determined AmpC type beta-lactamases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.46.1.1-11.2002
Paterson DL, Bonomo RA.Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18: 657-686. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.18.4.657-686.2005
Tamuly S, Saxena MK, Ambwani T, Lakhchura B.D.Multiple drug resistance and plasmid profiling in Salmonella Galiema, S. Typhimurium, S. Virchow and S. Heidelberg. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences 2008; 78 : 156-158
Weisblum B. Erythromycin resistance by ribosome modification. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39(3): 577-85. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.39.3.577
Le Hello S, Harrois D, Bouchrif B, Sontag L, Elhani D, Guibert V, Zerouali K, Weill FX.Highly drug-resistant Salmonella entericaserotype Kentucky ST198-X1: a microbiological study. Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13: 672-679. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70124-5
Molloy A, Nair S, Cooke FJ, Wain J, Farrington M, Lehner PJ, Torok ME.First report of Salmonella entericaserotype Paratyphi A azithromycinresistance leading to treatment failure. J Clin Microbiol 2010; 48: 4655-4657. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00648-10
Crump JA, Mintz ED.Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid fever. Clinical Infectious Diseases 2010; 50: 241-246. https://doi.org/10.1086/649541
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2019 Yashpal Singh, Anjani Saxena, Jeetendrasingh Bohra, Rajesh Kumar, Avdesh Kumar , Mumtesh Kumar Saxena